A 2026 biopharmaceutical review in a journal I do not trust said there is no identified high-affinity receptor, no validated molecular target, and a wide disconnect between the tidy preclinical effects and any coherent pharmacology
What the evidence does not establish: Human efficacy at clinically meaningful magnitudes, long-term safety, cardiovascular profile under chronic dosing
When kidney function declines, B12 clearance slows, and serum levels can rise
For example, a severe deficiency can lead to nerve damage and even paralysis
Vitamin C (L-ascorbic acid) destabilizes copper peptides
NAC significantly reduced markers like morning stiffness, disease activity score, nitric oxide, fasting blood sugar, and increased HDL cholesterol, although not all improvements were significantly different from the placebo group